The discouting factor¶
The discounting factor is a technique introduced in Harrison and West (1999) to avoid estimating the two tuning parameters in the usual kalman filter. The basic idea is as follows.
Kalman filter assumes the same innovation for every step, which is both hard to estimate and unnecessary. When we think of the role of an innovation matrix, it is just to dilute the past information and provide more uncertainty when new data comes in. Thus, why not let the innovation depends on the posterior covariance of the current state, for example, let the innovation be 1% of the current posterior variance?
More precisely, suppose the prior distribution of the latent state today is N(0, 1). After observed today’s data, the posterior distribution of the latent state becomes N(0, 0.8). Now to forecast into tomorrow, we would like to use today’s posterior to be the tomorrow’s prior distribution, with innovation added. So it is natural to relate the innovation to the current posterior distribution. For instance, we would like the innovation to be 1% of the current posterior, which will be N(0, 0.08), resulting in a prior for tomorrow as N(0, 0.88).
Another way to understand the discounting factor is to think of the information pass through. When the innovation (noise) are added, the information of the past are diluted. Therefore, discounting factor stands for the percentage of how much information will be passed towards future. In the previous example, only 99% information is passed to the new next day.
It is obvious that if 100% of information are carried over to the future, the fitted model will be very stable, as the new data is just a tiny portion compared to the existing information. The chain will not moved much even an extreme point appears. By contrast, when the discounting factor is small, say, only 90% information are passed through every day, then any new data will account for 10% of the performance of the time series for a given date, thus the model will adapt to any new data or change point fairly rapid.
To set the discounting factor is simple in pydlm. Discounting factors are assigned within each component, i.e., different components can have different discounting factors:
from pydlm import dlm, trend, seasonality
data = [0] * 100 + [3] * 100
myDLM = dlm(data) + trend(2, discount = 0.9) + seasonality(7,
discount = 0.99)
Numerical stability and the renewal strategy¶
One big caveat for using discounting factor is its numerical instability. The original kalman filter already suffers from the numerical issue due to the matrix multiplication and subtraction. Discounting factor adds another layer to that by multiply a scalar which is greater than 1. Usually, for models with big discounting factor, say 0.99, its performance is close to the usual kalman filter. However, for models with small discounting factor such as 0.8, the numerical performance would be a nightmare. This is easy to understand, as every step we are losing 20% information which could means one-digit loss or so. Therefore, the fitting usually dies after around 50 steps fitting.
To amelioerate this issue, I come up with this renewal strategy. Notice that for a model with a discounting factor of 0.8, fitting the whole time series is meaningless. For data that is 40-day old, its impact on the current state is less than 0.1%. Thus, if we disgard the whole time series except for the last 40 days, the latent states will at most be affected by 0.1%. This motives the following strategy: For small discounting model, we set a acceptable threshold, say 0.1%, to compute the corresponding renewal length. In this case, the renewal length is about 40 days. In the actual model fitting, we then refit the model state using only the past 40 days after every 40 steps. Following is a simple illutration.
| day1 - day39 | regular kalman filter |
| day40 | refit using day1 - day39 |
| day41 - day79 | regular kalman filter |
| day80 | refit using day41 - day79 |
With this renewal strategy, the longest length the discounting model needs to fit is limited by the twice of the renewal length and thus suppress the numerical issue.